Investigation on process guidelines and geometric capabilities for robust Shotcrete 3D Printing

Advancing additive manufacturing in construction (AMC) requires a clear understanding of feasible geometries and process capabilities for each technology. This paper maps the measurable design space of Shotcrete 3D Printing (SC3DP) and proposes a systematic overview linking geometric possibilities and process parameters. Two complementary experimental approaches are combined to provide a comprehensive framework for evaluating SC3DP, bridging the gap between practical implementation and fundamental insights into material-process interaction. The first set of experiments investigates path planning parameters and print strategies. Systematic evaluation evidences high dimensional accuracy, reliable radii from approx. 120 mm and printable overhangs up to 30° inclination. Additionally, practical guidelines are articulated. The second set of experiments focuses on material-process interaction by quantifying how traverse speed, concrete volume flow, nozzle-to-strand distance and air volume flow influence layer geometry. Measured outcomes indicate achievable layer widths of 75–180 mm and heights of 8–50 mm. The correlations among parameters and outputs are discussed to delineate the geometric possibilities. Together, these results define a reproducible method to chart SC3DP capabilities and deliver an overview of geometric possibilities. The framework supports fabrication-aware design, parameter selection and scaling, positioning SC3DP as a versatile AMC process for structurally relevant, performance-oriented applications.